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from 8i onward the DBWn performs incremental checkpoints instead of full checkpoints The incremental checkpoint mechanism instructs DBWn to write out dirty buffers at a constant rate, so that there is always a predictable gap between DBWn (which writes blocks on a lazy algorithm) and LGWR (which writes change vectors in near real time) Incremental checkpointing results in much smoother performance and more predictable recovery times than the older full checkpoint mechanism TIP The faster the incremental checkpoint advances, the quicker recovery will be after a failure But performance will deteriorate due to the extra disk I/O, as DBWn has to write out dirty buffers more quickly This is a conflict between minimizing downtime and maximizing performance The CKPT no longer has to signal full checkpoints, but it does have to keep track of where in the redo stream the incremental checkpoint position is, and if necessary instruct DBWn to write out some dirty buffers in order to push the checkpoint position forward The current checkpoint position, also known as the RBA (the redo byte address), is the point in the redo stream at which recovery must begin in the event of an instance crash CKPT continually updates the controlfile with the current checkpoint position EXAM TIP When do full checkpoints occur Only on request, or as part of an orderly database shutdown

MMON is a process that was introduced with database release 10g and is the enabling process for many of the self-monitoring and self-tuning capabilities of the database The database instance gathers a vast number of statistics about activity and performance These statistics are accumulated in the SGA, and their current values can be interrogated by issuing SQL queries For performance tuning and also for trend analysis and historical reporting, it is necessary to save these statistics to long-term storage MMON regularly (by default, every hour) captures statistics from the SGA and writes them to the data dictionary, where they can be stored indefinitely (though by default, they are kept for only eight days) Every time MMON gathers a set of statistics (known as a snapshot), it also launches the Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor, the ADDM The ADDM is a tool that analyses database activity using an expert system developed over many years by many DBAs It observes two snapshots (by default, the current and previous snapshots) and makes observations and recommendations regarding performance 5 describes the use of ADDM (and other tools) for performance tuning EXAM TIP By default, MMON gathers a snapshot and launches the ADDM every hour

When a user logs on to the database, they connect to a user account by specifying an account name followed by some means of authentication The user account defines the initial access permissions and the attributes of the session Associated with a user account is a schema The terms user, user account, and schema can often be used interchangeably in the Oracle environment, but they are not the same thing A user is a person who connects to a user account by establishing a session against the instance and logging on with the user account name A schema is a set of objects owned by a user account, and is described in 7 The way the account was created will set up a range of attributes for the session, some of which can be changed later, while the session is in progress A number of accounts are created at database creation time, and the DBA will usually create many more subsequently In some applications, each user has their own database user account This means that the database is fully aware of who is the real owner of each session This security model works well for small applications but is often impractical for larger systems with many hundreds or thousands of users For large systems, many users will connect to the same account This model relies on the application to map the real end user to a database user account, and it can make session-level security and auditing more complex This chapter assumes that every user is known to the database: they each have their own user account

Clear Makes each edited pixel transparent on the layer For a visual representation of each blending mode, see the Layer Blending Modes section of the color insert